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Human Trafficking & Slavery

6/24/2008 10:02:09 AM EST

Incorporating the Five Basic Elements of a Model Antitrafficking in Persons Legislation in Domestic Laws: From the United Nations Protocol to the European Convention

Posted by Dr. Mohamed Y. Mattar

Introduction

On November 25, 1997, Professor Louis Henkin invited me to talk about constitutionalism in the countries of the Middle East at the Columbia University School of Law. We engaged in a conversation about whether there is a model constitution that may be universally applied. Professor Henkin argued that there is no such model constitution, but that there are elements of constitutionalism that any constitution must reflect.[1]

I believe that the same analysis applies in other areas of the law, including the prevention, suppression, and punishment of trafficking in persons. Any comprehensive and effective antitrafficking legislation must include certain elements that mainly reflect criminalization of the act of trafficking and protection of the victim of trafficking. However, there is no model legislation that may be applied by all countries regardless of the particularities of their individual legal systems.[2]

In this Article, I will argue that there are five basic elements that should be incorporated into any antitrafficking legislation. First, laws must recognize all forms of trafficking as specific crimes that are subject to serious sanctions. Second, these laws must identify the trafficked person as a victim of a crime who is entitled to basic human rights, while taking into consideration the victim, the derivative victim, the vulnerable victim, the potential victim, and the presumed victim. Third, countries should adopt a comprehensive Five P’s approach to combating trafficking in persons, including prevention, protection, provision, prosecution, and participation. Fourth, laws must target all actors in the trafficking enterprise, including the natural person, the legal person, the private person, and the public person. Finally, countries should acknowledge trafficking in persons as a transnational crime that warrants transnational policies, especially extraterritoriality, extradition, and the exchange of information.[3]

I will explain these five elements in Parts III through VII, respectively, based upon a comparative study of already adopted antitrafficking laws from various legal systems, whether as a part of the criminal code[4] or a comprehensive act.[5] Many of these laws have been enacted in the last five years since the adoption of the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (U.N. Protocol).[6] I will also refer to the most recent regional convention on trafficking, the Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings (European Convention).[7] The European Convention goes beyond the U.N. Protocol and, in particular, enhances the protection granted to victims of trafficking.[8] But first, in Part II, I will briefly introduce and examine early antitrafficking laws.

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[1]. See generally Louis Henkin, Elements of Constitutionalism (Columbia Univ. Ctr. for the Study of Human Rights Occasional Paper Series, Nov. 1994).

[L]egitimate, acceptable constitutions must reflect respect for constitutionalism including, in particular, respect for individual human rights.

. . .

There is no model constitution. Some constitutions are brief and simple, others extensive and complex. States differ as to how they distribute law between constitution and legislation.

. . .

No two constitutions are or should be the same. A constitution must reflect the particular society, its geography and history, economy, demography, traditions, culture. But whether a constitution prescribes for a unitary or a federal state, a presidential or a parliamentary system, a socialist, free-market or mixed economy, a constitution that is authentically constitutionalist must secure constitutional legitimacy and constitutional review, authentic democracy, accountable government and one that will respect and ensure individual human rights and secure basic human needs.

In the end, no document, no blueprint of government, no bill of rights is sufficient to guarantee constitutionalism. In the end, constitutionalism depends on political, social and economic stability and a political culture that is committed to constitutionalism. What the constitution provides will reflect, contribute to, and help maintain such a culture of constitutionalism.

Id. at 10-11 (citation omitted).

[2]. “The process by which the requirements of the Convention can be fulfilled will vary from State to State. Monist systems could ratify the Convention and incorporate its provisions into domestic law by official publication, while dualist systems would require implementing legislation.” U.N. Office on Drugs & Crime, Div. for Treaty Affairs, Legislative Guides for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto 6, ¶ 6 (2005), available at http://www.unodc.
org/pdf/crime/legislative_guides/Legislative%20guides_Full%20version.pdf [hereinafter U.N. Legislative Guides].

[3]. See generally Mohamed Y. Mattar, Trafficking in Persons, an Annotated Legal Bibliography, 96 Law Libr. J. 669 (2004).

[4]. In many legal systems, trafficking in persons is merely recognized as a crime in the criminal or penal code. The following criminal codes specifically prohibit the crime of trafficking in persons: Crim. Code art. 109 (Alb.); Cód. Pen. [Penal Code] § 145 (Arg.); Crim. Code art. 132 (Arm.); Strafgesetzbuch [StGB] [Penal Code] No.217/1974, § 217 (Austria); Crim. Code arts. 106, 108, 150, 171, 173, 243-244 (Azer.); Penal Code arts. 325, 329 (Bahr.); Crim. Code arts. 123-124 (Belr.); Suppression of Trafficking in Human Beings and Child Pornography, Law of April 13 (1995) (Belg.) (amending article 77bis of the 1980 Aliens Law and the sections 379-380 of the Criminal Code); Ley de Proteccióna las Victimas de Delitos Contra La Libertad Sexual [Law for the Protection of Victims of Crimes Against Sexual Freedom], No. 2033 (1999) (Bol.) (amending sections 308-310, 312, 317-321 of the Penal Code); Crim. Code arts. 185-192 (Bosn. & Herz.); Penal Code §§ 149, 153, 250, 252, 256, 260-262 (Bots.); Decreto No. 11.106, de 28 de marzo de 2005, D.O. de 29.03.2005 (Brazil) (amending the Penal Code); Penal Code §§ 359-374 (Brunei); Crim. Code § IX (Bulg.); Código Penal [Penal Code] arts. 405-406 (Cape Verde); Crim. Code arts. 198-201 (Cent. Afr. Rep.); Penal Code arts. 279-280, 282, 286, 289 (Chad); Penal Code arts. 26, 367-368 (Chile); Crim. Code arts. 236-238, 240-244, 262, 358-359 (China); Penal Code tit. XI, chs. 1-3 (Colom.); Penal Code arts. 47, 172, 376-377 (Costa Rica); Penal Code arts. 335-338 (Côte d’Ivoire); Crim. Code arts. 175, 177-178, 191-192, 196 (Croat.); Código Penal [Penal Code] arts. 310-311 (Cuba); trestní zákon [Criminal Code] ĉ.140/1962/2001 Sb. 204, 233, 246 (Czech Rep.); Crim. Code arts. 216, 218, 260-262 (Den.); Penal Code arts. 394-396, 403-404 (Djib.); Crim. Code arts. 594, 604-605, 607 (Eri.); Penal Code arts. 602, 604-606 (Eth.); Penal Code arts. 152-153, 157-164, 248-257 (Fiji); Penal Code ch. 25 (Fin.); Penal Code arts. 260-261 (Gabon); Crim. Code arts. 1431, 1721 (Geor.); Strafgesetzbuch [StGB] [Penal Code] Nov. 13, 1998, as amended, §§ 180b-181, 236 (F.R.G.); Poinikos Kodikas [P.K.] [Crim. Code] 19:351 (Greece); Penal Code arts. 191-194 (Guat.); Crim. Code art. 195 (Hond.); Crimes Ordinance, (1991) Cap. 200, § 129 (H.K.); BüntetöTörvénykönyv [btk] [Penal Code], art. 175/B (Hung.); India Pen. Code arts. 366-367, 372-374; Crim. Code art. 297 (Indon.); Majmua-hi Qava’nini Jaza’l [Code of Crim. Laws] Tehran 1381 [2002] arts. 43, 135, 213 (Iran); Penal Law, 5737-1977, 1 LSI 1, § 203A (2005) (Isr.); Codice Penale [C.p.] [Penal Code] art. 602bis (Italy); Crim. Code §§ 56-60 (Jam.) Keihō [Penal Code] arts. 225-227 (Japan); Crim. Code arts. 310-311 (Jordan); Penal Code arts. 142-143, 147-148 (Kenya); Penal Code arts. 131-132, 136-142, 149, 241-249 (Kiribati); Crim. Code arts. 42, 200-202 (Kuwait); Crim. Code art. 124 (Kyrg.); Penal Code arts. 69, 92, 122 (Laos); Crim. Code §§ 154-1 to 154-2 (Lat.); Penal Code arts. 415, 420 (Libya); Crim. Code art. 217 (Liech.); Crim. Code art. 149 (Lith.); Code Crim. Proc. arts. 379-379bis (Lux.); Crim. Code arts. 5, 153 (Macau); Crim. Code art. 418 (Maced.); Penal Code arts. 140-142 (Malawi); Crim. Code arts. 180-183, 187, 198-190 (Mali); Crim. Code arts. 248A-248E (Malta); Crim. Code art. 253 (Mauritius); Crim. Code arts. 165-168 (Mold.); Crim. Code art. 111 (Mong.); Crim. Code art. 201a (Mont.); The Anti Trafficking in Persons Law, No. 5/2005 (2005) (Myan.); Mulaki Ain [Human Rights Crim. Code] art. 1 (Nepal); Wetboek van Strafrecht [Sr] [Crim. Code] art. 250 (Neth.); Crimes Act 1961, 2005 S.N.Z. No. 126, arts. 98C-98F, 136, 148 (N.Z.); Crim. Code arts. 201-203 (Nicar.); Crim. Code arts. 291-293 (Niger); Crim. Code §§ 222-225, 337, 365, 369 (Nigeria) (governing all the states in the southern part of Nigeria); Penal Code §§ 271-272, 277-281 (Nigeria) (governing all the states in the northern part of Nigeria); Penal Code §§ 192-199, 206, 222-229 (Nor.); Crim. Code arts. 218, 256-261 (Oman); Penal Code arts. 231-231G (Pan.); Crim. Code arts. 218, 221, 253 (Papua N.G.); Código Penal [Penal Code] art. 223 (Para.); Crim. Code arts. 179-182 (Peru); Código Penal [Penal Code] arts. 159, 169, 176 (Port.); Penal Code arts. 190, 194, 205 (Qatar); Crim. Code arts. 201-210 (Rom.); Ugolovnyi Kodeks [UK] [Crim. Code] arts. 152, 241 (Russ.); Crim. Code arts. 363-375 (Rwanda); Crim. Code arts. 120-121, 141, 160, 172 (St. Lucia); Crim. Code arts. 64. 104 (Serb.); Penal Code arts. 138-141 (Sey.); Penal Code arts. 359, 362, 365-367, 370-374 (Sing.); Crim. Code art. 246 (Slovk.); Penal Code arts. 387-387a (Slovn.); Penal Code arts. 360c, 365A-365B (Sri Lanka); Penal Code arts. 299-300, 305-307, 334 (Surin.); Schweizerisches Strafgesetzbuch [StGB] [Crim. Code] Dec. 27, 2005, SR 311, art. 196 (Switz.); Crim. Code arts. 510, 513 (Syria); Crim. Code art. 53 (Taiwan); Crim. Code arts. 132, 134, 335 (Taj.); The Measures in Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking in Women and children Act, B.E. 2540 (1997) (Thail.); Crim. Code arts. 126-128 (Tonga); Penal Code arts. 201a-201b (Turk.); Penal Code arts. 241-247 (Tuvalu); Penal Code arts. 125-126 (Uganda); Crim. Code arts. 146-150 (Ukr.); Penal Code arts. 303, 306 (U.A.E.); Código Penal [Crim. Code] arts. 280, 283 (Uru.); Penal Code art. 102 (Vanuatu); Penal Code arts. 119-120 (Vietnam); Crim. Code arts. 140-141, 144 (Zambia).

[5]. Recently, a number of countries have adopted more comprehensive laws. Recent antitrafficking legislation includes: Combating Trafficking in Human Beings Act, No. 46/20 (2003) (Bulg.); Combating of Trafficking in Persons and Sexual Exploitation of Children, No. 3(1) (2000) (Cyprus); The Danish Government’s Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Women (2002); Law No. 2002-1041 of Aug. 7, 2002, Journal Officiel de la République Française [J.O.] [Official Gazette of France], Aug. 8, 2002; Nomos (2002:3064) Combating Trafficking in Human Beings, Crimes Against Sexual Freedom, Child Pornography, and More Generally on Economic Exploitation of Sexual Life and Assistance to Victims Thereof, Ephemeris tes Kyvernesos tes Hellenikes Demokratias [EKED] 2002, A:248 (Greece) [hereinafter Greek Antitrafficking Law]; An Act to Institute Policies to Eliminate Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, Establishing the Necessary Institutional Mechanisms for the Protection and Support of Trafficked Persons, Providing Penalties for its Violations, and for Other, Rep. Act No. 9208, (May 26, 2003) (Phil.) [hereinafter Philippines Antitrafficking Act].

The following countries have legislation that comprehensively covers trafficking in persons: Suppression of Trafficking in Human Beings and Child Pornography, Law of April 13 (1995) (Belg.); Trafficking in Persons Prohibition Act of 2003 (2003) (Belize); Portant Définition et Répression du Trafic d’Enfant(s) [Law on Definition & Suppression of Traffic in Children], No. 001-2002/AN (2003) (Burk. Faso); Suppression of the Kidnapping, Trafficking, and Exploitation of Human Persons, KRAM Feb. 29 (1996) (Cambodia); zákon ĉ.140/1962 Sb. (2001) (Czech Rep.); Illicit Traffic of Migrants and Trafficking in Persons, No. 137-03 (2003) (Dom. Rep.); National Forum on the Rights of the Child and Trafficking of Minors (2004) (Eq. Guinea); Tourism Offenses Act, No. 7 (2003) (Gam.); The Prevention and Control of Human Trafficking Ordinance No. LIX (2002) (Pak.); No. 16 (Mar. 31, 2004) (Pan.); Law on the Prevention and Fighting Trafficking in Human Beings, No. 678 (2001) (Rom.); The Prohibiting Trafficking in Human Beings for Sexual Purposes Act (Svensk författningssamling [SFS] 2002:436) (Swed.); Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, 18 U.S.C. §§ 1589-1594, 22 U.S.C. §§ 7101-7110 (2000), as amended by Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003, Pub. L. No. 108-193, 117 Stat. 2875 (2003), and Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-164, 119 Stat. 3558 (2006) (U.S.); Violencia Sexual Comercial o No Comercial Cometida Contra Niños, Adolescentes o Incapaces, No. 17.815 (2004) (Uru.).

[6]. See generally Protocol To Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, G.A. Res. 55/25, Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/55/383 (Nov. 15, 2000) [hereinafter U.N. Protocol].

[7]. See generally Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings, May 16, 2005, C.E.T.S. No. 197 [hereinafter European Convention].

[8]. Compare id., with U.N. Protocol, supra note 6.

Incorporating the Five Basic Elements of a Model Antitrafficking in Persons Legislation in Domestic