Since the adoption of the open door policy in the late 1970s, Mainland China has undergone various fundamental changes. These have brought about reforms in different sectors including the legal sector. With increasing emphasis on governance by the rule of law, there have been substantial changes in the Civil Procedure Law.

The first codification of the provisional Civil Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China was passed in 1982. In 1991, the provisional code was replaced through the enactment of the Civil Procedure Law by the National People's Congress. On 28 October 2007, the Standing Committee of the NPC adopted an amendment to the Civil Procedure Law 1991, which went into effect from 1 April 2008. The Civil Procedure Law prescribes the provisions for instituting a civil action, the jurisdiction of the people's courts and the procedures to be followed for conducting a civil case. All parties to a civil action conducted within the PRC must comply with the Civil Procedure Law.

Judicial System

Under the PRC Constitution and the Law of Organization of the People's Courts of the PRC, the PRC judicial system is made up of the Supreme People's Court, the local people's courts, military courts and other specialised people's courts. The local people's courts are divided into three levels, namely, the basic people's courts, the intermediate people's courts and the higher people's courts. The basic people's courts include civil, criminal and administrative divisions. The people's courts at a lower level are subject to the supervision of people's courts at higher levels. The people's procuratorate also have the right to exercise supervision over the civil proceedings of people's courts at the same level and lower levels. The Supreme People's Court is the highest judicial organ of the PRC. It supervises the adjudicative work of the people's courts at all levels and other special people's courts.

Jurisdiction

A civil case is generally heard by a court located in the defendant's place of domicile. The jurisdiction may also be selected by express agreement between the parties to a contract provided that the people's court having the jurisdiction is located at (i) the plaintiff's or the defendant's place of domicile, (ii) the place of performing or executing the contract, or (iii) the object of the action.

The Civil Procedure Law expressly excludes foreign courts from exercising jurisdiction over certain civil actions over which the PRC people's courts have exclusive jurisdiction. Civil actions subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the people's courts include disputes arising from contracts of foreign investment enterprises.

Two-Tier Trial System

A party to the case concerned may appeal against the judgment or ruling of the first instance court of a people's court. The judgment or ruling of the second instance court at a people's court is final. In the absence of any appeal by any parties to the case within the stipulated period, the judgment or ruling of the people's court shall be the final judgment or ruling. Judgments or rulings of the second instance of the intermediate people's courts, the higher people's courts and the Supreme People's Court are final. Judgments or rulings of the first instance of the Supreme People's Court are also final. If, however, the Supreme People's Court or a people's court at a higher level finds an error in a final and binding judgment which has taken effect in any people's court at a lower level, or the presiding judge of a people's court finds an error in a final and binding judgment which has taken effect in the court over which he presides, a retrial of the case may be conducted according to the judicial supervision procedures.

Procedure

Under the Civil Procedure Law, a legal action is generally initiated by filing of a writ with the court. The court will arrange for service on the defendant within five calendar days. Afterwards, the defendant has 15 days to file a defence.
Based upon the Civil Procedure Law, a legal action can be dealt with by the 'summary procedure' or the 'ordinary procedure'. The summary procedure is less formal and will only be adopted for 'simple' cases. Civil cases can be finally determined within a few weeks by way of the 'summary procedure'.

As regards the 'ordinary' procedure, generally, the process involves three stages:

1. Investigation, at which the parties and their witnesses provide testimony and documentary evidence, which will be examined and questioned by the court.
2. Debate, at which the parties and their legal representatives will submit their arguments to the court.
3. Substantive hearing or trial, where an inquisitorial method is adopted rather than an adversarial method.

Civil cases will usually be disposed of by way of the ordinary procedure within a few months.

In contrast with the common law system utilised in Hong Kong, it is the duty of the judges in the PRC to carry out all necessary investigation and to review relevant materials appertaining to a civil case prior to the commencement of a trial. Mediation is also widely used, encouraged and promoted by judges for settlement of civil disputes. Generally, using the inquisitorial approach, PRC judges actively participate to attempt to achieve a settlement of civil disputes.

Enforcement

If any party to a civil action refuses to comply with a judgment or ruling made by a people's court or an award made by an arbitration tribunal in the PRC, the other party may apply to the people's court for the enforcement of the same within a stipulated period. Specific time limits are imposed on the right to apply for such enforcement. If at least one of the parties to the dispute or arbitration is an individual, the time limit is one year. If both parties to the dispute or arbitration are legal persons or other entities, the time limit is six months. If a party fails to satisfy a judgment which the court has granted approval to enforce within the stipulated time, the court will, upon application of the other party, mandatorily enforce the judgment.

Foreign Elements

A foreign national or foreign enterprise is generally given the same litigation rights and obligations as a citizen or legal person of the PRC. Should a court of a foreign country limit the litigation rights of PRC citizens and enterprises, the PRC courts are required to apply the same limitations to the citizens and enterprises of that foreign country.

A party seeking to enforce a judgment or ruling of a people's court against a party who is not physically or whose property is not within the PRC may apply to a foreign court with jurisdiction over the case for recognition and enforcement of such judgment or ruling. Similarly, if the PRC has entered into a treaty relating to judicial enforcement with the relevant foreign country, a foreign judgment or ruling may also be recognised and enforced according to PRC enforcement procedures by a PRC court, unless the people's court considers that the recognition or enforcement of a judgment or ruling will violate (i) the basic legal principles of the PRC, (ii) its sovereignty, (iii) national security, or (iv) social and public interest.

2008 Reform

With the substantial increase in the volume and complexity of commercial disputes brought before the PRC courts, further reforms in the Civil Procedure Law were introduced in April 2008. The changes are primarily two-fold, relating to retrial and enforcement.

The changes to the retrial procedure primarily focus upon additional grounds for retrial (eg the lack of jurisdiction), extension of the statutory time limit for retrial and a specific time limit for considering whether to allow a retrial by the PRC courts.

The changes to the enforcement procedure primarily focus upon additional obligations imposed on judgment debtors for disclosure of their assets and additional sanctions for failure to discharge disclosure obligations (such as an order to prohibit judgment debtors from leaving the jurisdiction).

Civil Justice Reform in Hong Kong

A major feature distinguishing the PRC and Hong Kong laws on civil procedure is the manner of the judiciary's involvement. Generally, for determination of civil disputes, the judiciary in the PRC adopts an inquisitorial approach and itself takes the lead in obtaining and reviewing evidence, whereas the judiciary in Hong Kong adopts an adversarial approach allowing the parties to obtain and present evidence.

Civil Justice Reform is a landmark in Hong Kong legal history and involves a major overhaul for Hong Kong civil procedure law. The underlying objectives, which are summarised in Order 1A of the Rules of the High Court, require and empower the judiciary to be more proactive and take more initiative to identify and narrow issues, to weed out irrelevant disputes, to monitor conduct of cases and to promote prompt settlement. The fundamental principle is the achievement of a speedy resolution in a just and effective manner.

The amended procedural rules still retain the various aspects of existing civil procedure, including the exchange of pleadings, discovery of documents and exchanges of witness statements and expert reports. However, various safeguards are put in place to try to ensure that the conduct of legal proceedings is streamlined and matters are ready for trial as soon as possible. Under the previous system, cases could take years to be concluded. New changes, including the introduction of case management conferences from virtually the outset of an action until trial, will enable the judiciary to have a tighter grip on the progress of legal proceedings. Judges are also expected to take up a more active role to assist the parties in identifying their differences and how they might be resolved, such as via mediation, in order to promote amicable settlement.

While these changes may seem to reflect new common ground between the judicial approaches seen in Hong Kong and the PRC, the Hong Kong judiciary will continue to take an adversarial approach in the determination of civil disputes. Judges will still allow the parties to present their own cases as they consider appropriate with limited interruption by the judiciary. However, the reforms are likely to bring some change in the judiciary's approach to determination of civil disputes, and judges are likely to push for more expeditious and cost-effective processes for dispute resolution.





Samuel Ngo
Consultant
Fried Frank
samuel.ngo@friedfrank.com

中華人民共和國民事
訴訟程序的對比論述

自70年代執行開放政策以來，中國大陸社會生活的各方面都發生了翻天覆地的變化。這些社會變化也促成了各個部門的改革，其中也包括法律部門的變革。隨著中國大陸法治意識不斷強化，民事訴訟法內容也發生了巨大的變化。

中華人民共和國首部臨時《民事訴訟法》法典於1982年獲得通過。1991年，全國人大正式頒佈《民事訴訟法》，該臨時法令被取代。2007年10月28日，全國人大常委會對1991年版本《民事訴訟法》作出修訂，該修訂版於2008年4月1日正式生效。《民事訴訟法》通過立法對提起民事訴訟、人民法庭的管轄權以及管理民事案件應當遵循的程序等作出規定。在中華人民共和國境內發生的民事訴訟各方主體必須遵守《民事訴訟法》的法律規定。

司法制度

依照《中華人民共和國憲法》及《中華人民共和國人民法院組織法》之規定，中華人民共和國的司法體系由最高人民法院、當地人民法院、軍事法庭以及其他專門人民法院等構成。當地人民法院分為三個等級，即基層人民法院、中級人民法院以及高級人民法院。基層人民法院包括民事、刑事與行政法院。較低級別人民法院接受上級人民法院的監督。人民檢察院也有權對同級及下級人民法院的民事審判過程加以監督。最高人民法院是中華人民共和國的最高級別司法機構，它對所有各級人民法院以及其他專門人民法院的判決實施監督職權。

司法管轄權

中國的民事案件一般由被告居住地所在地的法庭受理。但合約訂立各方也可以通過簽訂協議約定司法管轄權，但前提是約定的管轄人民法院位於：(1)原被告的居住地；(2)合約履行或執行地；或者(3)訴訟標的所在地。

《民事訴訟法》明確規定，對於某些民事案件中華人民共和國法院具有專屬審判權，外國法庭對該等案件不得行使司法管轄權。屬於中華人民共和國法院專屬管轄的民事案件，包括外商投資企業的合同糾紛等。

兩級審判制度

對於一審人民法院的判決或裁定，民事案件當事人有權提出上訴。人民法院的二審判決為終審判決或裁定。在規定期限內若案件各方均未提出上訴，人民法院的判決即成為終審判決或裁定。中級人民法院二審、或高級人民法院及最高人民法院的判決或裁定均屬終局判決。最高人民法院作出的一審判決亦屬終局判決。但是，若最高人民法院或較高一級人民法院認定任何較低一級人民法院所作出之最終及具約束力判決，或某一級別法院的首席法官認定該法院作出的某一最終及具約束力判決有誤，將按照司法監督程序對該等案件進行重審。

程序

依照民事訴訟法之規定，一般是向法院遞交訴狀後，便標誌著法律訴訟的開始。法院會在五個曆日內作出安排，向被告發出應訴傳票。之後，被告有15天時間提交答辯狀。
以《民事訴訟法》為基礎，對於民事案件，可以採取兩種方式加以處理：一種是「簡易訴訟程序」，另一種是「普通訴訟程序」。所謂簡易程序形式比較非正式，僅用於「簡單」的案件。經「簡易程序」審理的民事案件，可以在數個星期之內即告結案。

在「普通訴訟程序」中，一般來說判決的過程包括三個階段：
1. 法院調查。本階段各方及其證人提供認證及書面證據，而法院對其進行核實及質詢。
2. 法院辯論。該階段各方及其法律代表向法院陳述其觀點。
3. 實質聽證或審訊，一般採用訊問方式而作對抗形式。

採用普通訴訟程序，法院一般可以在數月之內審結一宗民事案件。

與香港實施的普通法制度相比，中國大陸的法官須承擔職責，進行所有必要的調查，並在審理一件民事案件之前，對所有相關材料進行核實審查。在民事案件審理中，調解也是廣泛採用的一種手段，法官多鼓勵及促成雙方通過調解來解決爭議。一般來說，中國大陸的法官採用問訊方式審理民事案件，可以積極地參與有關案件，嘗試促成雙方在民事糾紛方面的和解。

強制執行

若某一民事案件的一方拒絕遵守中國人民法院作出的判決或裁定，或是仲裁庭所作出的裁決時，另一方可以向人民法院提出申請，要求在規定的時限內對此實施強制執行。在申請強制執行的權利上有時效限制。假如該爭議或仲裁至少有一方為個人，其時效限制將為一年﹔假如該爭議或仲裁所涉及的均為法人或其他實體，則時效限制將為六個月。若一方未能在規定時間內按照法院批准執行的判決行事，在另一方提出申請後，法院將會強制履行判決。

外國國民

外國國民或企業在一般情況下亦可享有與中華人民共和國公民或法人同等之訴訟權利與義務。若某一別國法院限制中華人民共和國公民與企業之訴訟權利時，中華人民共和國法院亦須向該國的公民與企業適用同樣的限制。

訴訟一方要求對方履行人民法院之判決或裁定，而後者身處國外或財產不在中華人民共和國境內時，該方可以向對該案件具備管轄權的外國法院提出申請，要求對該判決或裁定加以承認並執行。同樣，假如中華人民共和國就有關司法執行等問題與該等國家訂立了協定，中華人民共和國法院將會按照國內的執行程序，對外國的判決或裁定加以承認與執行，除非中國法院認為對該等判決或裁定的承認與執行，將會對(1)中華人民共和國的基本法律原則；(2)其主權；(3)國家安全，或(4)社會與公共利益等構成危害。

2008年改革措施

鑒於中華人民共和國法院所受理的商業爭議的數量與複雜性迅猛增加，2008年4月，中國對《民事訴訟法》進行了進一步改革。改革主要體現在兩個方面，涉及到重審與強制執行。
重審程序改革主要集中於重審理由的增加（例如不具備司法管轄權）、重審的法定時限的延長，以及中華人民共和國法院在考慮是否批准重審方面的特定時限等。

執行程序的變革主要體現在增加了判定債務人應披露其資產的義務，以及未能履行財產披露義務而給予的處罰（如發出禁令限制判定債務人離開司法管轄區）等。

香港的民事司法制度改革

香港與中國大陸的民事訴訟程序法的主要分別在於司法機構的參與方式。一般而言，中國大陸的司法機構在審理民事糾紛時是採用問訊方式，即是法院自己會主動就所審理的案件從事證據的蒐集和審查，而香港的司法機構則是採用對抗式制度，容許訴訟雙方自行蒐集和提出證據。
民事司法制度改革是香港法制史的一個里程碑，涉及對香港民事訴訟程序法的大幅修改。於《高等法院規則》Order 1A中所述的基本目標，要求和賦權司法機構在審理案件時採取更積極的態度，更為主動地識別和收窄所爭議的問題，清除不相關的爭議，監控案件的進行，並促成案件的迅速和解。基本的原則，是以公正有效的方式達至案件的迅速解決。

經修訂後的程序規則，仍然保留現行民事訴訟程序的各個方面，包括狀書交換、文件透露，以及證人陳述和專家報告的交換。然而，各項保障措施亦已經就緒，確保法律程序的進行能夠順暢，案件能夠盡快得到審理。在以前的制度下，一宗案件的審理可能需時數年。新的改變，包括從訴訟剛開始直至進行審訊的一段期間，將會舉行案件管理會議，使司法機構對法律程序的進度能有更緊密的掌控，而法官也被預期將會扮演更積極的角色，協助訴訟雙方尋找相互之間的差異，以及如何將其解決-例如透過調解方式，從而鼓勵友好和解。

雖然此等改變，好像反映香港與中國大陸的司法運作邁向一個新的共同基礎，但香港的司法機構在審理民事糾紛時，仍會繼續採用對抗式的制度。法官仍會允許訴訟雙方以他們認為合適的方式來陳述自己的案件，並只會作出有限度的干預。但無論如何，這一改革總會給司法機構帶來審理民事糾紛方面的若干變化，而法官將會要求訴訟雙方以更迅速和具成本效益的方式來解決爭議。




Samuel Ngo
Consultant
Fried Frank
samuel.ngo@friedfrank.com